When Darwin resumed systematic research on emotions around 1866, he began to collect observations more widely and composed a list of queries on human expression. A number of handwritten copies were sent out in 1867 (see, for example, letter to Fritz Muller, 22 February [1867]). The list was printed for ease of distribution sometime in late 1867 or early 1868. Darwin went over his questions, refining them, as we can see from this copy of the printed list with small corrections in Darwin's hand.
The queries were sent to friends and relations, some of whom had infants (question 14 was about the shape of the mouth in sulky children). But the main impetus was the collection of observations on a global scale. Darwin was especially interested in peoples who had had little communication with European settlers, so that he might gage how far emotional expressions were cultural and conventional, or instinctive and universal. Darwin used his existing correspondence network, and asked that the printed queries be sent further afield, to missionaries, merchants, and travelers who might have encounters with remote peoples. Replies were returned from Australia, New Zealand, Borneo, Malaysia, China, Calcutta, Ceylon, southern and western Africa, North and South America.
The questions are very precise. For example: "(6) When in good spirits, do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?" Darwin's questionnaire was an extension of the well-established convention of "notes to travelers" issued by heads of museums or botanical gardens to instruct collectors. But the document was also carefully devised so as to prevent the feelings of Darwin's remote observers from colouring their descriptions. The observations had in fact already been supplied by Darwin within the body of each question. All that was required by way of response was a simple "yes" or "no."
Despite Darwin's precise instructions, however, many of his correspondents found the questionnaire difficult to apply in a colonial setting. The natives in Ceylon, wrote the botanist George Thwaites on 22 July 1868, "all endeavour to drill their countenances so as to express as little emotion as possible before Europeans". Replies were often more expressive of British sentiments for other peoples or vice versa. The Scottish botanist John Scott wrote from Calcutta, 4 May 1868: "Shame is … expressed by an averted and declined head with a wavering unsteady askant, eye … though indeed I am rather disposed to regard these as indications of fear than shame-the brute-like dread of corporal punishment and not the susceptibilities of a moral nature."
Darwin did not typically countenance such racist sentiments in his correspondents, and they are part of the politics of emotion that was edited out as he moved from the collection of information to its display in print. After Darwin received all of the replies to his questionnaire, he collated them on a series of separate sheets. Fear, astonishment, disgust, etc., appeared at the head, followed by a list of observers and their answers. Almost nothing from the letters was transferred except "yes" or "no." "The same state of mind" Darwin would later assert in Expression of the Emotions p. 17, "is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity."
Table of Correspondence about Darwin's Questionnaire (click on the letter dates to see the individual letters or see the expression questionnaire letters in a map)
We have made all the letters that we could available online ahead of schedule as part of the "Darwin and Human Nature" project, funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, and the John Templeton Foundation.
Correspondent |
Letter date |
Location |
Notes |
Barber, Mary E. |
[Grahamstown, Cape Colony (South Africa)] |
nodding vertically |
|
Blair, R.H. |
Worcester College for the Blind, Worcester, England |
blushing in the blind |
|
Bowker, J.H. |
[Cape of Good Hope (South Africa)? ] |
mentioned in JPM Weale letter, but Bowker's answers not found |
|
Bowman, William |
5 Clifford St, London, England |
infants' eyes |
|
Bridges, Thomas (b) |
[Keppel Island, Falklands] |
Fuegians |
|
Brooke, C.A.J. |
Sarawak, Borneo |
Dyaks |
|
Brooke, C.A.J. |
Sarawak, Borneo |
||
Bulmer, J |
[Gipps Land, nr. Flemington? Australia] |
forwarded by Smyth Gippsland, Victoria Aborigines |
|
Bunnett, Templeton |
Echuca, Australia |
forwarded by Smyth Echuca Aborigines |
|
Chaumont, F.S.B.F. de |
Woolston, Southampton, England |
letter to W.E. Darwin shrugging/pouting of children |
|
Crichton-Browne, James |
32 Queen Anne St. Cavendish Square W London, England |
enclosed in a letter from Henry Maudsley nodding |
|
Crichton-Browne, James |
West Riding Asylum, Wakefield, England |
||
Crichton-Browne, James |
West Riding Asylum, Wakefield, England |
blushing |
|
Crichton-Browne, James |
Down, Kent, England |
blushing |
|
Crichton-Browne, James |
West Riding Asylum, Wakefield, England |
blushing |
|
Darwin, Francis |
Unknown? |
comments from A.D. Bartlett and S. Sutton |
|
Darwin, Francis |
New University Club, St. James's Street, S.W., London, England |
pouting |
|
Darwin, W.E. |
Chester Place, London, England? |
blushing in blind students |
|
Darwin, W.E. |
Southampton, England |
blushing |
|
Darwin, W.E. |
Southampton, England |
Langstaff's observations of blushing |
|
Donders, F.C. |
Utrecht, Netherlands |
||
Donders, F.C. |
Utrecht, Netherlands |
||
Donders, F.C. |
Utrecht, Netherlands |
action of eyelids |
|
Erskine, H. N. B. |
[Ahmednuggur, Bombay, India] |
||
Forbes, David |
Boulton, England (about Auracania, Peru) |
Indian tribes of S. Americas blushing |
|
Forbes, David |
Portman Square, London W., England (about Auracania, Peru) |
sends MS relevant to expressions queries |
|
Foster, Michael |
Trinity College, Cambridge, England |
||
Gaika, Christian |
Bedford [Cape of Good Hope], South Africa |
possibly included in letter from Mansel Weale |
|
Galton, Francis |
Rutland Gate, London, England |
||
Geach, F.F. |
Johore, Malaysia |
sent three letters Malays Malacca Chinese |
|
Geach, F.F. |
Johore, Malaysia |
||
Geach, F.F. |
Johore, Malaysia |
||
Gibbs, George |
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, USA (about Puget's Sound, Oregon,USA) |
N. W. Indians |
|
Glenie, S.O. |
Peradeniya, Ceylon |
enclosed in letter from G.H.K. Thwaites |
|
Glenie, S.O. |
Trincomalee, Ceylon |
||
Gray, Asa |
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |
Nile |
|
Gray, Asa |
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |
Laura Bridgman |
|
Gray, Asa |
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |
will try to get answers on Laura Bridgman |
|
Gray, Asa |
[Alexandria, Egypt] |
nodding in affirmation |
|
Gray, Jane |
[Alexandria, Egypt] |
possibly included in letter(s) from Asa Gray Nile |
|
Gray, Asa |
Florence, Italy (about Nile) |
half sheet enclosed by Jane Gray about expression |
|
[Coranderrk Station, Australia] |
forwarded by Muller |
||
Haast, J.F.J. von |
Christchurch, New Zealand |
doesn't answer queries but includes list of men he forwards it to |
|
Haast, J.F.J. von |
Christchurch, New Zealand |
includes enclosure from Revd J Stack, Maori Missionary Kaipoi blushing and shame |
|
Hagenauer, F.A. |
Lake Wellington, Australia |
letter to F.J.H. von Mueller nodding, gentle hiss |
|
Hagenauer, J.A. |
Flemington, Australia |
forwarded by Smyth Wellington Gippsland Victoria Aborigines |
|
Hawkshaw, Cicely Mary (to ED) |
Liphook, Hampshire, England |
observations of baby's tears |
|
Hooker, J.D. |
Kew, London (about Nagasaki, Japan) |
will forward query |
|
Huxley, H.A. |
Abbey Place, London, England |
letter to Emma Darwin baby expression |
|
Kempson, L.F. |
Penmaenmawr, Conway, Wales |
letter to Emma Darwin infant daughter |
|
King, P.G. |
Sydney, Australia |
Aborigines |
|
Lacy, Dyson |
[Queensland, Australia] |
Queensland Aborigines |
|
Lane, H.B. |
Belfast, Australia? |
forwarded by Smyth Belfast, Victoria Aborigines |
|
Lang, Archibald G. |
[Coranderrk, Australia] |
forwarded by Smyth Coranderik Victoria aborigines |
|
Lubbock, E.F. |
Lombard Street, London? |
||
Matthews, Washington |
Unknown? |
Smithsonian Tetons Grosventres Mandans Assinaboines |
|
Maudsley, Henry |
32 Queen Anne St. Cavendish Square W, London, England |
Enclosed letter from Dr. C. Browne |
|
Meyer, A.B. |
Manila, Philippin Islands |
nodding bending head forward |
|
Mivart, G.J. |
North Bank, London, England |
blushing |
|
Muller, Ferdinand |
Unknown? |
astonishment |
|
Muller, Fritz |
Down, Kent, England |
||
Muller, Fritz |
Down, Kent, England |
CD sent query about crying in monkeys, references Rengger and Humboldt, who he cites in Expression, p. 137 |
|
Muller, Fritz |
Itajahy, Santa Catharina, Brazil |
||
Nicol, Patrick |
Sussex Lunatic Asylum, Haywards Heath, England |
||
Paget, James |
1 Harewood Place, Hanover Square W., London, England |
astonishment |
|
Reade, Winwood W. |
Conservative Club, London? (about Gabon, Africa) |
||
Reade, Winwood W. |
Sierra Leone, Africa |
nodding |
|
Reade, Winwood W. |
Sierra Leone, Africa |
||
Reade, Winwood W. |
Sierra Leone, Africa (about Jollofs tribe of Senegambia) |
||
Reade, Winwood W. |
Accra, West Coast of Africa |
||
Reade, Winwood W. |
Lagos, Africa |
astonishment in Croboe |
|
Reade, Winwood W. |
Conservative Club, St James' St, London, England |
||
Reade, Winwood W. |
11 St Mary Abbot's Terrace, London, England |
blushing |
|
Reade, Winwood W. |
11 St Mary Abbot's Terrace, London, England |
||
Reade, Winwood W. |
11 St Mary Abbot's Terrace, London, England |
extracts from Carl Johan Andersson, Lake Ngami (1856) on expression |
|
Reade, Winwood W. |
13 Alfred Place, Bedford Square, London, England |
women and W. Africans |
|
Rejlander, O.G. |
Victoria Street, London, England? |
notes on wife's expressions |
|
Rothrock, J.T. |
McVeytown [Pennsylvania], USA (about Atnah and Espyox Indians of Nass River, British Columbia, Canada) |
forwarded by Asa Gray Atnah Espyox Nasse vertical nodding |
|
Scherzer, Karl Von |
Ministry of Commerce, Vienna, Austria |
will include queries in expedition to East Asia |
|
Scott, John |
Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, India |
||
Scott, John |
Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, India |
vertical nodding |
|
Smith, Andrew |
11 Saint Mary Abbot's Terrace, Kensington. W., London, England |
enclosed in letter from W. W. Reade Hottentots and Kaffirs |
|
Smith, Andrew |
16 Alexander Square, Brompton, London |
Blushing in Hottentots |
|
Smyth, R. Brough |
Flemington, Australia |
Melbourne Aborigines |
|
Speedy, J. |
Freshwater, Isle of Wight, England (about Abyssinians of Ethiopia) |
Abyssinians Theodore |
|
Stack, James West |
Christchurch, New Zealand (about Kaiapoi, New Zealand) |
forwarded to CD by J.F.J. von Haast Maoris |
|
Sulivan, B.J. |
Bournemouth, England |
passing query to others |
|
Sutton, Seth |
Zoological Gardens, Regents Park, London |
expressions in Chimpanzees and Orangs astonishment |
|
Swinhoe (Consul) |
Unknown? |
Chinese |
|
Swinhoe, Robert |
British Legation, Peking, China |
Chinese |
|
Swinhoe, Robert |
Amoy, China |
||
Swinhoe, Robert |
33 Oakley Square, London, England |
Ningpo |
|
Taplin, George |
Unknown? |
forwarded by Smyth Macleay aborigines |
|
Thwaites, G.H.K. |
Peradeniya, Ceylon |
||
Wallace, A. R. |
9 St. Mark's Crescent, N.W., London, England |
talks about forwarding queries and answering later |
|
Wallace, A. R. |
9 St. Mark's Crescent, N.W., London, England |
||
Walsh, B.D. |
Rock Island, Illinois, USA |
says he won't respond to query |
|
Weale, J.P.M. |
Bedford, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa |
Kafir, Hottentot |
|
Weale, J.P.M. |
Bedford, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa |
Kaffirs |
|
Weale, J.P.M. |
Bedford, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa |
Kafir girls |
|
Weale, J.P.M. |
Bedford, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa? |
||
Weale, J.P.M. |
Bedford, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa? |
kafir, hottentot astonishment |
|
Wedgwood, F.J. |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England? |
||
Wedgwood, F.J. |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England? |
shame in ancients |
|
Wedgwood, F.J. |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England? |
girl at Lock Hospital |
|
Wedgwood, F.J. |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England? |
Macrobius' Saturnalia |
|
Wedgwood, F.J. |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England |
Expression, p. 273 n. 17 extract from Charma nodding |
|
Wedgwood, Hensleigh |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England? |
laughter |
|
Wedgwood, Hensleigh |
1 Cumberland Place, London, England? |
"brown study" |
|
Wedgwood, Sarah E to ED |
London, England? |
"brown study" |
|
Weir, J.J. |
Blackheath, London, England |
expressions in birds |
|
West, Raymond |
Canara (now Kanara), Bombay, India |
forwarded by H.N.B. Erskine |
|
Wilson, Edward |
Hayes, Bromley, Kent, England (about South Australia) |
enclosure not found |
|
Wilson, Edward |
Hayes, Bromley, Kent, England (about Australia) |
encloses letter from Austrialian friend, letter not found |
|
Wilson, Edward |
Hayes, Bromley, Kent, England (about Victoria Australia) |
encloses photo he will send query around |
|
Wilson, Edward |
Hayes, Bromley, Kent, England (about Australia) |
encloses further replies from Australia |
|
Wilson, Samuel |
Longerenong, Wimmera, Victoria, Australia |
forwarded by Smyth; Wilson sent letter to Ferdinand von Mueller Victoria Aborigines |