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From Fritz Müller   7 February 1881

Summary

Describes variability in the stamens and pollen of Lagerstroemia, which CD spoke of in Forms of flowers.

Also reports on similar phenomena in Pontederiacea (Heteranthera reniformis).

Has received from Paul Mayer an interesting paper on metamorphosis in Palaemonetes varians, which is also being studied by J. E. V. Boas in Denmark. Shows differences between larval development in Danish forms and those found in southern Italy.

Author:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  7 Feb 1881
Classmark:  Möller ed. 1915–21, 2: 406–7
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13041A

Matches: 29 hits

  • … Describes variability in the stamens and pollen of Lagerstroemia , which CD spoke of in …
  • … dessen Blüten immer sechs lange Staubfäden haben mit grünlichem Pollen und ungefähr 30  …
  • … kurze mit gelbem Pollen; der Griffel ist so lang wie die längeren Staubfäden und die Narbe …
  • … Blumen mit grünem und andere mit gelbem Pollen von derselben Pflanze befruchtet, aber …
  • … whose blooms invariably have six long stamens with greenish pollen and approximately 30  …
  • … short ones with yellow pollen; the style is as long as the longer stamens and the stigma …
  • … flowers with green and others with yellow pollen from the same plant, but not one of them …
  • … in meinem Garten, welche mit grünem Pollen dieser zweiten Varietät befruchtet wurden, …
  • … Früchte hervor; vier Blumen, die mit gelbem Pollen befruchtet waren, fielen am dritten …
  • … fallen wie diejenigen, die mit grünem Pollen befruchtet waren; einige Tage später sind sie …
  • … von Trigona und Melipona besucht, welche den Pollen sammeln und nach dem Benehmen mancher …
  • … der Staubfäden und die verschiedene Farbe des Pollens der Pflanze nützlich sein wird, weil …
  • … Insecten vorzugsweise durch den hellgelben Pollen angezogen werden, der wegen der Kürze …
  • … Blüte übertragen werden kann, während der Pollen der längeren Staubfäden, der sich in …
  • … am Eingang der Blumenröhre stehen und hellgelben Pollen enthalten; der dritte Staubfaden …
  • … ist lang und hat blassbläulichen Pollen; der Griffel ist mit seltener Ausnahme so lang wie …
  • … ein. Bei mehreren Commelynaceen ist der Pollen der verschiedenen Antheren ebenfalls …
  • … garden, which were fertilised with green pollen of this second variety, are now producing …
  • … four flowers that were fertilised with yellow pollen did not drop off on the third day, as …
  • … those that had been fertilised with green pollen; a few days later, however, they fell …
  • … at the entrance of the corolla tube and have bright yellow pollen; the third stamen is …
  • … long and carries pale blue pollen; the style is with few rare exceptions as long as this …
  • … occurs. In several Commelynaceae the pollen of different anthers is likewise differently …
  • … is less visible in those anthers from which pollen can be transferred most easily to the …
  • … of Trigona and Melipona, which gather the pollen, and from the behaviour of some of these …
  • … the different lengths of the stamens and the different colour of the pollen of the plant …
  • … are becoming necessary, because pollen-gathering insects are chiefly …
  • … attracted by the bright yellow pollen, which due to the shortness of the stamens cannot …
  • … to the stigma of another blossom, while the pollen of the longer stamens, which is in a …

From Fritz Müller   28 February 1881

Summary

In his last letter FM told CD about four flowers of Lagerstroemia that he had fertilised with the yellow pollen of another variety or species and which had subsequently fallen off. He has now repeated the experiment using the yellow pollen of a different variety and successfully produced good fruit as large as that fertilised with green pollen.

Author:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  28 Feb 1881
Classmark:  Möller ed. 1915–21, 2: 409
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13068A

Matches: 9 hits

  • … that he had fertilised with the yellow pollen of another variety or species and which had …
  • … repeated the experiment using the yellow pollen of a different variety and successfully …
  • … produced good fruit as large as that fertilised with green pollen. …
  • … von Lagerstroemia in meinem Garten mit gelbem Pollen von einer anderen Varietät (oder Art) …
  • … Ergebniss; ich befruchtete 5 Blumen mit gelbem Pollen von eben jener anderen Varietät, und …
  • … gross, wie die zur selben Zeit mit grünem Pollen befruchteten. Ich weiss nicht, was in dem …
  • … of Lagerstroemia in my garden with yellow pollen of another variety (or species), and that …
  • … outcome; I fertilised 5 flowers with yellow pollen from just this other variety, and all …
  • … the ones that were fertilised with green pollen at the same time. I do not know what might …

To Fritz Müller   20 March 1881

Summary

FM’s view on meaning of two-coloured stamens in many flowers; CD has been looking through his old notes on dimorphism for supporting evidence. Intends to send extract of FM’s letter to Nature or to Linnean Society.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Date:  20 Mar 1881
Classmark:  The British Library (Loan MS 10 no 50)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13091

Matches: 10 hits

  • … might throw light on hybridism. If this pollen is developed according to your view for the …
  • … Fewer good seeds were produced by the crimson pollen   I concluded that the shorter …
  • … stamens were aborting & that the pollen was not good. — …
  • … The mature pollen is incoherent & must be flirted against the visiting insect’s body; I …
  • … that bees w d never visit the flowers for pollen . This made me afterwards write to the …
  • … their mandibles from the base upwards, & this forced a worm-like thread of pollen from the …
  • … terminal pore, & this pollen the bees collected with their hind legs. So that the …
  • … these, showing that flowers fertilised with pollen from the yellow anthers produced twice …
  • … as much seed as those fertilised with pollen from the crimson anthers, are recorded in a …
  • … cases he observed the bee came only for pollen. CD began writing Earthworms in the autumn …

To Fritz Müller   12 April 1881

Summary

Earthworm book with printer.

Has sent FM’s observations on paraheliotropism to Nature ["Movement of leaves", Collected papers 2: 228–9].

Plants with differently coloured anthers.

Intends gathering together his notes on "bloom".

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Date:  12 Apr 1881
Classmark:  The British Library (Loan MS 10 no 51)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13113

Matches: 5 hits

  • … Melipona were attracted by the bright yellow pollen of flowers of Lagerstroemia , while …
  • … ignoring the less noticeable green pollen ( letter from Fritz Müller, 7 February 1881 ). …
  • … novel view on the two-coloured anthers or pollen, & observe which kind is most gathered by …
  • … the two different kinds of anthers and pollen and speculated about differences in stylar …
  • … noted for possessing different types of pollen and anthers (see letter to Fritz Müller, 20 …

From Fritz Müller   29 October 1881

Summary

Thanks CD for letter of 10 September [13326]

and for copy of Nature.

Reports on Lagerstroemia experiments.

Has been making observations on what happens to plants following heavy rain. Sends CD three specimens to show how dirt attaches to the undersides of leaves.

Author:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  29 Oct 1881
Classmark:  Möller ed. 1915–21, 2: 419–20
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13441A

Matches: 5 hits

  • … gekeimt, und diese stammten alle von Blüten, welche mit grünem Pollen befruchtet waren. …
  • … Von den aus gelbem Pollen hervorgegangenen schienen zwar einige gut zu sein, aber noch …
  • … and all of these come from flowers which had been fertilised with green pollen. …
  • … Of those which developed from yellow pollen, although some of them seemed good, still none …
  • … the fertility of the two different types of pollen. Oxalis is the genus of wood sorrel; …

To W. T. Thiselton-Dyer   21 March [1881]

Summary

Wants plants with two sets of anthers of different colours. Fritz Müller letter [13041a] has made him wish to renew experiments and observations carried out 20 years ago.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  William Turner Thiselton-Dyer
Date:  21 Mar [1881]
Classmark:  Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Darwin: Letters to Thiselton-Dyer, 1873–81: ff. 212–13)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13094

Matches: 4 hits

  • … Fritz Müller, 7 February 1881 ; Müller noted that pollen-eating insects were attracted …
  • … to the brighter coloured pollen on short …
  • … stamens, but that pollen from longer stamens was more likely to be transferred to the …
  • … fertility of flowers fertilised with pollen from the yellow anthers or the crimson …

From C. V. Riley   18 December 1881

Summary

Concurs in CD’s criticism of Thomas Meehan [see 13360].

Author:  Charles Valentine Riley
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  18 Dec 1881
Classmark:  DAR 176: 158
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13559

Matches: 5 hits

  • … plant. I have never seen her gather the pollen, but have watched her thus go from flower …
  • … observe whether the moth might occasionally bring pollen from one plant to the stigma of …
  • … one, having assumed that Riley thought pollen was transferred within the same flower ( …
  • … that Pronuba necessarily gathers the pollen from the same flower which she fertilizes. …
  • … not only pollinizes with the same load of pollen different flowers on the same panicle, …

To Wilhelm Breitenbach   20 [June] 1881

Summary

Glad WB has arrived in Brazil. Suggests study of insects and study of fertilisation in Melastomataceae. Want of books is not a serious evil.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Wilhelm Breitenbach
Date:  20 [June] 1881
Classmark:  DAR 143: 145
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13021

Matches: 3 hits

  • … his observations of the different types of pollen in several plants of the Melastomaceae; …
  • … crosses. CD referred to crosses made using pollen of the same form of flower in …
  • … as illegitimate, and those fertilised by pollen of a different form as legitimate (see ‘ …

To Fritz Müller   19 December 1881

Summary

Waxy secretion or "bloom" on leaves.

FM’s article on Crotalaria.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Date:  19 Dec 1881
Classmark:  The British Library (Loan MS 10 no 57)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13564

Matches: 2 hits

  • … two sets of seedlings from the two kinds of pollen. Many thanks for the facts about the …
  • … seeds derived from fertilisation with yellow pollen had germinated. See letter from Fritz …

To G. J. Romanes   26 March 1881

Summary

Discusses difficulties involved in plant experiment designed to test Pangenesis.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  George John Romanes
Date:  26 Mar 1881
Classmark:  American Philosophical Society (Mss.B.D25.586)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13098

Matches: 2 hits

  • … und künstliche Befruchtung durch den eigenen Pollen. Pt 1 of Beiträge zur Kenntniss der …
  • … summit of the ovarium and then inserting pollen caused the fertilis n of the ovules. This …

To C. V. Riley   28 September 1881

Summary

Comments on CVR’s paper [‘Further notes on the pollination of Yucca and on Pronuba and Prodoxus’, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (1880): 617–39]. ‘What an inaccurate man Mr Thomas Meehan is.’ Interested in further observations on Pronuba.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Charles Valentine Riley
Date:  28 Sept 1881
Classmark:  DAR 147: 303
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13360

Matches: 2 hits

  • … the moth can or does occasionally bring pollen from one plant to the stigma of a distinct …
  • … you believe that Pronuba gathers pollen from the same flower which she fertilises— What …

To B. J. Sulivan   28 October [1881]

Summary

Has looked at BJS’s grapes. Can give no explanation of the case.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Bartholomew James Sulivan
Date:  28 Oct [1881]
Classmark:  Sulivan family (private collection)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13439

Matches: 1 hit

  • … be an effect of direct action of the pollen on the mother plant and referred to Variation …

From James Torbitt   8 January 1881

Summary

Report on the progress of his experiments with potatoes; some varieties spoilt by an apparently hereditary disease.

Author:  James Torbitt
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  8 Jan 1881
Classmark:  DAR 178: 172
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-12995

Matches: 1 hit

  • … them, like all the others, I have used pollen gathered promiscuously and no doubt specific …

To Fritz Müller   23 February 1881

Summary

CD interested by FM’s facts on movement of plants; has sent some to Nature ["Movement of leaves", Collected papers 2: 228–9]. Greatly admires FM’s work. Suggests an experiment to investigate movement in Phyllanthus.

Author:  Charles Robert Darwin
Addressee:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Date:  23 Feb 1881
Classmark:  The British Library (Loan MS 10 no 49)
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13064

Matches: 1 hit

  • … in order to facilitate the transfer of pollen by fig wasps. CD’s letter to Hermann Crüger …

From Wilhelm Breitenbach   9 September 1881

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Summary

Thanks for gift of Movement in plants.

Plans botanical research in Brazil.

Hermann von Jhering is conducting experiments on snakes.

WB obliged to work as newspaper correspondent.

Plans breeding experiments on dimorphic plants.

Author:  Wilhelm Breitenbach
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  9 Sept 1881
Classmark:  DAR 160: 295
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13325

Matches: 1 hit

  • … species that had two different types of pollen. Several volumes of Karl Friedrich Philipp …

From B. J. Sulivan   29 September 1881

Summary

Gives further details on his grapes.

Tells of his recent movements and state of health.

Author:  Bartholomew James Sulivan
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  29 Sept 1881
Classmark:  DAR 177: 315
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13363

Matches: 1 hit

  • … stated that it was a very good case of ‘the pollen of a dark grape causing the white one …

From Fritz Müller   31 May 1881

Summary

Has just received CD’s letter of 12 April [13113]. To answer CD’s query, Heteranthera reniformis is an amphibious plant that grows as well on moist ground as it does in ditches filled with water.

For the past few weeks has been observing Phyllanthus plants that had shown the irregular movement in leaves returning from the positions assumed at night, but none has repeated the irregularity. Perhaps the progeny from the seeds he has collected will inherit the tendency for irregular movement.

Describes his observations of the power of movement in Cassia, Desmodium, and a few other plants.

Paul Mayer has identified seven new species of insects FM found in nine different species of figs.

Author:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  31 May 1881
Classmark:  Möller ed. 1915–21, 2: 410–11
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-13185A

Matches: 1 hit

  • … in order to facilitate the transfer of pollen by fig wasps. Paul Mayer reported on the …

From Fritz Müller   9 January 1881

thumbnail

Summary

Thanks for CD’s offer of assistance after flood damage.

Comments on Movement in plants. Discusses sleep movements and paraheliotropism of Maranta and other plants.

Describes the fertilisation of figs by Hymenoptera.

Author:  Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller
Addressee:  Charles Robert Darwin
Date:  9 Jan 1881
Classmark:  DAR 99: 217–20
Letter no:  DCP-LETT-12996

Matches: 1 hit

  • … in order to facilitate the transfer of pollen by fig wasps. Hermann Graf zu Solms-Laubach …
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Forms of flowers

Summary

Darwin’s book The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, published in 1877, investigated the structural differences in the sexual organs of flowers of the same species. It drew on and expanded five articles Darwin had published on the…

Matches: 15 hits

  • … male flowers on separate plants) and also noted that their pollen differed in size and shape. He …
  • … of Primrose & Cowslip with short pistils & large-grained pollen are rather more fertile …
  • … of my experiments lead me to suspect that the large-grained pollen suits the long pistils & the …
  • … I think I have made out their good or meaning clearly. The pollen of A is fitted for stigma of B …
  • … both terms referred to the fertilisation of one form with pollen from the same form. At this late …
  • … two forms and that one of these was absolutely sterile with pollen from the same form, while the …
  • … explained to Gray, ‘ I have lately been putting the pollen of the two forms on the division of the …
  • … me as truly wonderful, that the stigma distinguishes the pollen; & is penetrated by the tubes of …
  • … he told Hooker, ‘ In function, but not in appearance, the pollen of these two forms, as tested by …
  • … is so frequent in truly hermaphrodite groups; namely the pollen & stigma of each flower being …
  • … of the plant, with dotted lines indicating which pollen must be applied to each stigma to produce …
  • … He told Gray in October 1865 that with respect to its own pollen, the long-styled form was …
  • … plants raised from Dimorphic species fertilized by their own pollen, are themselves generally …
  • … in a few specimens. It is necessary to compare size of pollen grains & state of stigma ’. …
  • … ‘I will rank no plant as dimorphic without comparing pollen-grains & stigmas’. When Hermann …

Charles Harrison Blackley

Summary

You may not have heard of Charles Harrison Blackley (1820–1900), but if you are one of the 15 million people in the UK who suffer from hay fever, you are indebted to him. For it was he who identified pollen as the cause of the allergy. Darwin was…

Matches: 11 hits

  • … fever, you are indebted to him. For it was he who identified pollen as the cause of the allergy, and …
  • … 5 July 1873 Darwin wrote again, saying:  ‘The power of pollen in exciting the skin & mucous …
  • … changes in his own symptoms, that he was able to single out pollen as the only credible cause. …
  • … He also experimented with fresh, dry and extracts of pollen, administered to his nose, mouth, eyes …
  • … writes: Perhaps where grass is cut & dried; some pollen of the entomophilous division …
  • … was fascinated by Blackley’s experiments testing whether pollen could be carried large distances in …
  • … p. 5). Darwin gave a further example of how coniferous pollen could be carried for hundreds of miles …
  • … with carbolic acid to deter insects.  He concluded that in pollen seasons much higher levels were …
  • … from hay fever in large cities far away from sources of pollen. In his later work, possibly …
  • … Blackley tried to find out the smallest amount of pollen that would initiate and maintain the …
  • … recommending spending summers in suitable locations to avoid pollen.  But his lasting contribution …

Cross and self fertilisation

Summary

The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom, published on 10 November 1876, was the result of a decade-long project to provide evidence for Darwin’s belief that ‘‘Nature thus tells us, in the most emphatic manner, that she abhors…

Matches: 20 hits

  • … flowers and the physiological effects of different forms of pollen. Although many plants that Darwin …
  • … many of these were nevertheless fertile with their own pollen. He set out to compare several …
  • … of the young plants when raised from a pistil fertilized by pollen from the same flower, & from …
  • … that Darwin would confirm that this poppy shed its pollen immediately after the flower opened, …
  • … since even those flowers to which he applied foreign pollen had probably already been self …
  • … on which he commented, ‘This complete infertility with own pollen could hardly have remained …
  • … you w d  care, is that a great excess of, or very little pollen produced not the least difference …
  • … On the other hand seeds from this plant, fertilised by pollen from the same flower, weigh less, …
  • … beginning to suspect that the insects which could transfer pollen in sweet peas simply did not exist …
  • … mignonette ( Reseda odorata ) was absolutely sterile with pollen from same plant in spite of the …
  • … there sh d  be some difference in ovules & contents of pollen-grains (for the tubes penetrate …
  • … the same plant!’ ( To J. D. Hooker, 21 May [1868] ) Pollen tubes, or rapidly elongating vegetative …
  • … ovary of a flower; they are triggered to elongate when the pollen touches the stigmatic surface. …
  • … at the lessened fertility when he pollinated plants using pollen from other plants of the same …
  • … the early part of the flowering season quite sterile with pollen from the same plant, though fertile …
  • … as adults forever fixed in close proximity to others, so pollen from widely separated flowers could …
  • … stylar forms of flowers, Darwin had referred to unions where pollen from one form had been applied …
  • … that some forms were absolutely sterile with their own pollen while others had varying degrees of …
  • … Ernst Haeckel, ‘It is really wonderful what an effect pollen from a distinct seedling plant which …
  • … forms of flowers that showed sterility could exist when pollen from one form was applied to the same …

A fly on the flower: From Hermann Müller, 23 October 1867

Summary

In March 1867, Hermann Müller, a young teacher of natural sciences at a provincial Realschule (a type of secondary school that emphasised the natural sciences) in Lippstadt in the Prussian province of Westphalia, sent Darwin two papers on the mosses of…

Matches: 4 hits

  • … order to observe their adaptations for collecting nectar and pollen. A letter he wrote in October …
  • … of the hoverfly mouthparts that are specially adapted for pollen eating. Müller’s discovery seemed …
  • … as pseudotracheae), which were the perfect size for holding pollen grains. He further noted, having …
  • … in different species, depending on the size of the pollen eaten by each type of fly. It is amazing …

Floral Dimorphism

Summary

Sources|Discussion Questions|Experiment Floral studies In 1877 Darwin published a book that included a series of smaller studies on botanical subjects. Titled The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, it consisted primarily of…

Matches: 2 hits

  • … class was able to readily observe the two sizes of style and pollen within these plants. To observe …
  • … .0254 mm.”[1] Darwin suggested that the difference in pollen sizes between the short and long-styled …

Essay: Evolutionary teleology

Summary

—by Asa Gray EVOLUTIONARY TELEOLOGY When Cuvier spoke of the ‘combination of organs in such order that they may be in consistence with the part which the animal has to play in Nature,’ his opponent, Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, rejoined, ‘I know nothing of…

Matches: 14 hits

  • … meaning. One good illustration of it is furnished by the pollen of flowers. The seeming waste of …
  • … ’ which every one has heard of. Myriads upon myriads of pollen-grains (each an elaborate organic …
  • … a violet, in which there are not many times more grains of pollen produced than there are of seeds …
  • … other flowers also, provided with a large surplus of pollen, and endowed (as the others are not) …
  • … to certain insects, which are thereby induced to convey this pollen from blossom to blossom, that it …
  • … of which are committed to insects, the likelihood that much pollen may be left behind or lost in the …
  • … in orchis-flowers is accounted for by the fact that the pollen is packed in coherent masses, all …
  • … against it when it sucks nectar from the flower, and so the pollen will be bodily conveyed from …
  • … case, that of pine-trees, the vast superabundance of pollen would be sheer waste if the intention …
  • … ’ as the means, no one is entitled to declare that pine-pollen is in wasteful excess. The cheapness …
  • … involved in similar difficulty. The superabundance of the pollen of pine-trees above referred to, …
  • … In the analogous instance of willows a diminished amount of pollen is correlated with direct …
  • … difference in the conveyance would reduce the quantity of pollen produced. It is, we know, in the …
  • … work and material; but why should it begin to produce less pollen? But this is as nothing compared …

Orchids

Summary

Sources|Discussion Questions|Experiment A project to follow On the Origin of Species Darwin began to observe English orchids and collect specimens from abroad in the years immediately following the publication of On the Origin of Species. Examining…

Matches: 2 hits

  • … , which ejects its pollinia with a sticky gland so that the pollen will stick on the head of an …
  • … of the genera Catasetum . This genera of orchid uses a pollen release mechanism that ejects …

From morphology to movement: observation and experiment

Summary

Darwin was a thoughtful observer of the natural world from an early age. Whether on a grand scale, as exemplified by his observations on geology, or a microscopic one, as shown by his early work on the eggs and larvae of tiny bryozoans, Darwin was…

Matches: 2 hits

  • … adapted for cross fertilisation (sticky glands containing pollen masses) or self fertilisation …
  • … to communicate their observations on what happened to the pollen masses. Darwin continued to …

Hermann Müller

Summary

Hermann (Heinrich Ludwig Hermann) Müller, was born in Mühlberg near Erfurt in 1829. He was the younger brother of Fritz Müller (1822–97). Following the completion of his secondary education at Erfurt in 1848, he studied natural sciences at Halle and Berlin…

Matches: 2 hits

  • … at the ways insects were adapted to gather nectar and pollen, just as flowers were adapted to …
  • … in hoverflies that allowed them to consume large amounts of pollen. Further research along these …

Orchids

Summary

Why Orchids? Darwin  wrote in his Autobiography, ‘During the summer of 1839, and, I believe, during the previous summer, I was led to attend to the cross-fertilisation of flowers by the aid of insects, from having come to the conclusion in my…

Matches: 5 hits

  • … puzzles me.— The Fly-Ophrys seems hardly ever to get its pollen masses moved at all, & the …
  • … agency—another part, namely the natural falling out of the pollen-masses, being adapted for self …
  • … in which I ask for information on what kinds of moths the pollen-masses of Orchids have been found …
  • … Hooker, ‘ I shall never rest till I see a Catasetum eject pollen-masses, & a Mormodes twist its …
  • … not only because of its remarkable ability to eject its pollen masses like a catapult, but also …

The evolution of honeycomb

Summary

Honeycombs are natural engineering marvels, using the least possible amount of wax to provide the greatest amount of storage space, with the greatest possible structural stability. Darwin recognised that explaining the evolution of the honey-bee’s comb…

Matches: 2 hits

  • … built back to back, and are used to store honey, nectar, and pollen, and to provide a nursery for …
  • … cells stored the greatest possible amount of honey and pollen with the least possible expenditure of …

Fool's experiments

Summary

‘I love fools' experiments. I am always making them’, was one of the most interesting things the zoologist E. Ray Lankester ever heard Darwin say. ‘A great deal might be written as comment on that statement’, Lankester later recorded, but he limited…

Matches: 1 hits

  • … to Lankester involved placing under a bell jar some pollen from a male flower together with, but …

Darwin in letters, 1864: Failing health

Summary

On receiving a photograph from Charles Darwin, the American botanist Asa Gray wrote on 11 July 1864: ‘the venerable beard gives the look of your having suffered, and … of having grown older’.  Because of poor health, Because of poor health, Darwin…

Matches: 4 hits

  • … whereby each form achieved the highest fertility only with pollen from the other two forms. The …
  • … collecting and measuring flower parts, drawing pictures of pollen-grains, stigmas, and anthers, and …
  • … writing on 14 April [1864] , ‘I can do as much pollen work as ever you like’. Comments on William’s …
  • … Crüger confirmed both his observation of  Catasetum pollen adhering to a humble-bee’s back, …

What is an experiment?

Summary

Darwin is not usually regarded as an experimenter, but rather as an astute observer and a grand theorist. His early career seems to confirm this. He began with detailed note-taking, collecting and cataloguing on the Beagle, and edited a descriptive zoology…

Matches: 2 hits

  • … aim; reproducing natural processes by hand (applying the pollen of one flower to another, immersing …
  • … and counting natural productions (stamens, pistils, pollen seeds; visits of bees to flowers); …

Darwin in letters, 1862: A multiplicity of experiments

Summary

1862 was a particularly productive year for Darwin. This was not only the case in his published output (two botanical papers and a book on the pollination mechanisms of orchids), but more particularly in the extent and breadth of the botanical experiments…

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  • … to observe the effects of repeated crossing with own-form pollen. He also began systematically to …
  • … of styles and stamens and differently coloured and sized pollen grains; only an elaborate system of …

Species and varieties

Summary

On the origin of species by means of natural selection …so begins the title of Darwin’s most famous book, and the reader would rightly assume that such a thing as ‘species’ must therefore exist and be subject to description. But the title continues, …or…

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  • … long pistils; he also noted differences in the size of the pollen in the two forms. Over the next …
  • … was self-sterile, while another was fertile with its own pollen. There seemed to be no universal law …

Scientific Practice

Summary

Specialism|Experiment|Microscopes|Collecting|Theory Letter writing is often seen as a part of scientific communication, rather than as integral to knowledge making. This section shows how correspondence could help to shape the practice of science, from…

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  • … fertility of orchids he has self-pollinated and crossed with pollen of other species. …

Scientific Networks

Summary

Friendship|Mentors|Class|Gender In its broadest sense, a scientific network is a set of connections between people, places, and things that channel the communication of knowledge, and that substantially determine both its intellectual form and content,…

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  • … He discusses how dipterous insects are adapted to eating pollen rather than only to sucking nectar. …
  • … flowers. One is ripening. Dissection of the other shows the pollen accomplishes fertilisation …
  • … interpretation of Acropera pollination is ingenious. Pollen-tubes of some cleistogamous flowers …

Darwin in letters, 1877: Flowers and honours

Summary

Ever since the publication of Expression, Darwin’s research had centred firmly on botany. The year 1877 was no exception. The spring and early summer were spent completing Forms of flowers, his fifth book on a botanical topic. He then turned to the…

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  • … . ‘I will rank no plant as dimorphic without comparing pollen-grains & stigmas’, Darwin …
  • … and painstaking measurements of the size and number of pollen-grains, Darwin compared the fertility …
  • … especially with the aid of insects: the size and shape of pollen-grains, the position of stigmatic …
  • … life to which all organisms are subjected, by producing both pollen and seeds’ ( Forms of flowers …

A tale of two bees

Summary

Darwinian evolution theory fundamentally changed the way we understand the environment and even led to the coining of the word 'ecology'. Darwin was fascinated by bees: he devised experiments to study the comb-building technique of honey bees and…

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  • … is, depressing the keel so that the mechanism which caused pollen to be deposited on the bee would …
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